Biogenic Copper-Based Nanoparticles: Emerging Antimicrobial Agents Against Pathogenic Microorganisms | Nanomedicine & Infection Control #researchawards

Introduction

Biogenic copper-based nanoparticles (CuNPs) have emerged as promising antimicrobial agents due to their potent activity and environmentally sustainable synthesis routes. Green synthesis approaches utilize plants, microorganisms, and biological wastes, where phytochemicals, enzymes, and proteins act as natural reducing and stabilizing agents. These processes avoid toxic chemicals, operate under mild conditions, and yield nanoparticles typically smaller than 100 nm with bioactive surface coatings. Such features not only enhance antimicrobial performance but also align with global demands for eco-friendly nanotechnologies in healthcare, agriculture, aquaculture, and food safety.

Green Synthesis Strategies and Biological Control of Nanoparticle Properties

Biological systems play a decisive role in governing the morphology, size, crystallinity, and stability of copper-based nanoparticles. Plant extracts rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, and terpenoids enable rapid reduction and effective capping, while bacteria, fungi, and algae provide enzymatic and protein-mediated pathways for controlled nanoparticle formation. The choice of biological source, extraction method, and reaction parameters strongly influences nanoparticle uniformity, dispersibility, and long-term stability, directly impacting antimicrobial efficiency.

Antimicrobial Mechanisms of Biogenic Copper-Based Nanoparticles

The antimicrobial activity of biogenic CuNPs arises from multiple interconnected mechanisms. These include the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), sustained release of Cu²⁺ ions, disruption of microbial cell membranes, and interference with enzymatic, metabolic, and genetic processes. Surface-bound biomolecules from green synthesis further enhance microbial interaction and biofilm penetration, enabling broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and resistant microbial communities.

Monometallic versus Hybrid Copper-Based Nanoparticle Systems

While monometallic Cu and CuO nanoparticles exhibit strong antimicrobial properties, hybrid systems such as Ag–Cu, Zn–CuO, and CuS nanoparticles demonstrate enhanced efficacy through synergistic effects. These hybrids integrate redox activity, ion release, and in some cases photothermal or photocatalytic mechanisms, leading to improved microbial killing at lower doses. Comparative studies highlight the potential of hybrid systems to overcome antimicrobial resistance and expand functional applications.

Applications in Medicine, Agriculture, Aquaculture, and Food Safety

Biogenic copper-based nanoparticles have found diverse applications due to their antimicrobial versatility. In medicine, they are incorporated into wound dressings, implants, and antimicrobial coatings. In agriculture and aquaculture, they support sustainable crop protection and disease management by reducing reliance on chemical pesticides and antibiotics. In food safety and packaging, CuNPs help inhibit spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, extending shelf life while maintaining eco-friendly standards.

Toxicity, Challenges, and Future Directions

Despite their benefits, the toxicity of biogenic CuNPs is highly context-dependent, influenced by size, shape, surface chemistry, capping agents, concentration, and exposure conditions. Poorly capped or ultra-small nanoparticles may induce cytotoxicity, hemolysis, developmental defects, or growth inhibition, whereas appropriate functionalization improves biocompatibility and selectivity. Future research must focus on standardized physicochemical characterization, harmonized toxicity testing, and mechanistic studies to enable safe translation, regulatory approval, and responsible commercialization of biogenic copper-based nanomaterials.

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#CopperNanoparticles, #GreenNanotechnology, #BiogenicNanoparticles, #AntimicrobialNanomaterials, #SustainableSynthesis, #NanoMedicine, #AgriculturalNanotech, #AquacultureHealth, #FoodSafetyNanotech, #HybridNanoparticles, #CuONanoparticles, #ROSMechanism, #BiofilmControl, #EcoFriendlyMaterials, #Nanotoxicology, #RegulatoryNanotech, #PlantMediatedSynthesis, #MicrobialNanoparticles, #NanoparticleCharacterization, #FutureNanotechnology,

Phenotypic & Molecular Insights into Carbapenem-Resistant E. coli in Retail Meats | Thailand Study #pencis #researchawards

Introduction

Carbapenem-resistant Escherichia coli (CREC) has emerged as a critical public health concern due to its resistance to last-resort antibiotics and its increasing detection outside hospital settings. The presence of CREC in retail meats represents a potential pathway for transmission of antimicrobial resistance from food-producing animals to humans. Understanding the occurrence, resistance mechanisms, and genetic characteristics of CREC in food sources is essential for risk assessment and the development of effective surveillance and control strategies, particularly in regions where antimicrobial use in animal production is common.

Prevalence of Carbapenem-Non-Susceptible E. coli in Retail Meats

The investigation demonstrated a high prevalence of presumptive carbapenem-non-susceptible E. coli (CNSEC) in retail meat samples, with beef showing the highest contamination rate. The large proportion of CNSEC isolates subsequently confirmed as CREC highlights retail meat as a significant reservoir of carbapenem-resistant bacteria. These findings suggest that the food chain may play an underrecognized role in the dissemination of carbapenem resistance, emphasizing the need for systematic monitoring of antimicrobial resistance in meat products.

Phenotypic Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles

Phenotypic susceptibility testing revealed that a substantial proportion of isolates exhibited resistance to both imipenem and meropenem, confirming their classification as CREC. The high level of resistance observed across different meat types underscores the limited therapeutic options available for infections caused by these strains. Such phenotypic resistance patterns also raise concerns about selective pressure from antimicrobial use in livestock, which may contribute to the maintenance and spread of highly resistant E. coli populations.

Molecular Detection of Carbapenemase Genes

Molecular analysis showed that only a small percentage of CREC isolates carried carbapenemase genes, predominantly the blaNDM gene, with one isolate also harboring blaVIM. Although the prevalence of these genes was low, their presence is alarming because blaNDM is associated with rapid global dissemination and high-level resistance. The detection of these genes in food-associated isolates indicates the potential for horizontal gene transfer and highlights the importance of molecular surveillance alongside phenotypic testing.

Virulence Factors and Phylogenetic Characteristics

All carbapenemase-positive CREC isolates carried the fimH gene, a key adhesion factor involved in colonization, but lacked other major virulence determinants. Phylogenetic analysis classified these isolates within Group D, which is often associated with extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli. This combination of antimicrobial resistance and phylogenetic background suggests that even isolates with limited virulence gene profiles may still pose a risk if they acquire additional pathogenic traits or are transmitted to vulnerable populations.

Public Health Implications and Research Perspectives

The identification of CREC carrying clinically important resistance genes in retail meats has significant implications for food safety and public health. These findings reinforce the need for a One Health approach integrating human, animal, and environmental surveillance of antimicrobial resistance. Future research should focus on tracking transmission pathways, assessing the role of food handling and preparation practices, and evaluating interventions to reduce the emergence and spread of carbapenem-resistant bacteria within the food supply chain.

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#CarbapenemResistance, #CREC, #AntimicrobialResistance, #FoodSafetyResearch, #OneHealth, #EscherichiaColi, #RetailMeatSurveillance, #blaNDM, #CarbapenemaseGenes, #MolecularEpidemiology, #PublicHealthMicrobiology, #ZoonoticRisk, #AMRResearch, #PhylogeneticAnalysis, #VirulenceFactors, #FoodbornePathogens, #GlobalHealthThreat, #ThailandResearch, #ClinicalMicrobiology, #InfectiousDiseaseResearch,

Mucocutaneous Eruption Children | Mycoplasma pneumoniae Clinical & Immunological #researchawards

Introduction

Reactive infectious mucocutaneous eruption (RIME) is an emerging pediatric mucocutaneous syndrome characterized by prominent mucositis with limited or absent skin involvement and an infectious, rather than drug-induced, etiology. First distinguished from Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS), RIME poses diagnostic challenges due to overlapping clinical features. Mycoplasma pneumoniae is the most frequently implicated pathogen, particularly in children, where recognition is critical to avoid misdiagnosis and inappropriate management. Understanding RIME as a distinct clinical entity has significant implications for diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis in pediatric infectious diseases and dermatology research.

Etiopathogenesis and Infectious Triggers

Current evidence highlights M. pneumoniae as the predominant trigger of RIME, with pathogenesis believed to involve immune-mediated mechanisms rather than direct pathogen invasion. Molecular mimicry and immune complex formation are hypothesized contributors to mucosal injury. Recent literature has expanded the spectrum of infectious triggers to include viral and bacterial pathogens, emphasizing RIME as a post-infectious immunologic phenomenon. Research into host susceptibility, immune pathways, and pathogen-specific responses remains crucial to elucidate disease mechanisms.

Clinical Spectrum and Phenotypic Variability

RIME demonstrates marked clinical heterogeneity, ranging from isolated mucositis to multisite involvement of oral, ocular, and genital mucosa, with minimal or variable cutaneous findings. This variability complicates early diagnosis and contributes to confusion with SJS or erythema multiforme. Pediatric case series, including the described male patients aged 2–12 years, illustrate presentations from absent skin lesions to widespread rash, underscoring the need for phenotype-based clinical classification in future research.

Diagnostic Challenges and Differential Diagnosis

Differentiating RIME from SJS is a central clinical and research challenge due to overlapping mucocutaneous features but divergent etiologies and prognoses. Accurate diagnosis relies on thorough clinical assessment, exclusion of drug triggers, and confirmation of infectious etiology through serology or PCR. Research efforts should focus on developing standardized diagnostic criteria and biomarkers to facilitate early recognition and reduce misclassification in both clinical practice and epidemiologic studies.

Management Strategies and Therapeutic Outcomes

Management of RIME is largely supportive and multidisciplinary, involving antimicrobial therapy targeting M. pneumoniae, mucosal care, and systemic treatment for complications such as pneumonia or sepsis. The favorable recovery observed within 10–21 days in reported cases supports the effectiveness of timely intervention. However, variability in disease severity and recurrence highlights the need for clinical trials and consensus guidelines to optimize therapeutic strategies and long-term follow-up.

Prognosis, Recurrence, and Research Implications

Although generally associated with good outcomes, RIME can exhibit a relapsing phenotype, as demonstrated by recurrent hospitalizations in some patients. Long-term sequelae, including post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation or ocular complications, warrant further investigation. From a research perspective, RIME represents an important model of infection-triggered mucocutaneous disease, emphasizing the need for multicenter studies to define epidemiology, recurrence risk, and preventive strategies in pediatric populations.

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#ReactiveInfectiousMucocutaneousEruption, #RIME, #MycoplasmaPneumoniae, #PediatricDermatology, #PediatricInfectiousDiseases, #Mucositis, #ExtraPulmonaryManifestations, #StevensJohnsonSyndrome, #ClinicalResearch, #RareDiseases, #ImmuneMediatedDisease, #PediatricCaseSeries, #InfectiousTriggers, #DiagnosticChallenges, #MultidisciplinaryCare, #RelapsingDisease, #ClinicalPhenotypes, #MucocutaneousDisorders, #TranslationalResearch, #PediatricImmunology,

Two-Time Longitudinal Assessment of Healthcare Workers’ COVID-19 Exposure #pencis #researchawards

Introduction

Healthcare workers (HCWs) have been at the forefront of the COVID-19 pandemic and have faced prolonged occupational exposure to SARS-CoV-2. Despite widespread implementation of infection prevention and control (IPC) measures, the persistence of the pandemic and its transition into more routine phases have raised concerns about sustained exposure risks and behavioral fatigue. Understanding how occupational and community exposure risks evolve over time, along with adherence to IPC practices, is essential for protecting HCWs and maintaining healthcare system resilience. This study addresses an important gap by prospectively examining exposure risks and IPC adherence among HCWs beyond the acute pandemic phase.

Study Design and Setting

This prospective observational study was conducted across four public hospitals in the Thessaly region of Greece, providing a representative snapshot of HCWs operating in diverse clinical environments. Data collection occurred at two time points—baseline (January–March 2022) and a six-month follow-up—allowing for temporal comparisons. By focusing on HCWs who reported contact with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 cases, the study targeted individuals with meaningful exposure risk, thereby strengthening the relevance of its findings to real-world clinical practice.

Assessment of Occupational and Community Exposure

Exposure risk was systematically evaluated using the World Health Organization’s standardized risk assessment questionnaire for HCWs. This instrument captured both occupational exposure, such as patient contact during routine care or aerosol-generating procedures, and community exposure outside the workplace. The consistent finding that nearly three-quarters of participants reported occupational exposure at both time points underscores the sustained nature of risk for HCWs, even as pandemic dynamics evolved.

Temporal Changes in Risk Classification

Among HCWs with occupational exposure, a significant increase in high-risk classification was observed over time, rising from 76% at baseline to 88% at follow-up. This shift indicates that although the proportion of exposed HCWs remained stable, the intensity or quality of exposure worsened. The more than twofold increase in odds of being classified as high-risk highlights a substantial effect size and suggests growing vulnerability, potentially linked to cumulative exposure, changes in work practices, or declining vigilance.

Professional Role and Differential Risk

The study revealed notable differences in exposure risk by professional role, with nurses consistently demonstrating higher risk compared with physicians. This disparity likely reflects the nature of nursing duties, which involve more frequent and prolonged patient contact, including close bedside care. These findings emphasize the need for role-specific risk mitigation strategies and targeted support for professional groups disproportionately affected by occupational exposure.

Adherence to Infection Prevention and Control Practices

While overall use of personal protective equipment (PPE) remained high throughout the study period, adherence to several critical IPC practices declined over time. Specifically, proper removal and replacement of PPE and routine decontamination of high-touch surfaces were less consistently followed at follow-up. This decline may reflect pandemic fatigue or normalization of risk, underscoring the importance of continuous training, monitoring, and reinforcement of IPC measures to sustain protective behaviors among HCWs.

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#COVID19Research #HealthcareWorkers #OccupationalExposure #InfectionPrevention #IPCPractices #PandemicFatigue #ProspectiveStudy #HospitalEpidemiology #PublicHealthResearch #SARSCoV2 #PPECompliance #AerosolGeneratingProcedures #RiskAssessment #NursingResearch #PhysicianSafety #WorkplaceHealth #EpidemiologyStudy #HealthcareSafety #WHOGuidelines #PostPandemicCare

Tai Chi on Exercise Capacity and Quality of Life in Chronic Heart Failure #pencis #researchawards

Introduction

Chronic heart failure (CHF) remains a major global health burden, characterized by reduced exercise tolerance, impaired quality of life (QoL), and high healthcare utilization. Alongside conventional pharmacological and device-based therapies, non-pharmacological interventions such as cardiac rehabilitation play a crucial role in CHF management. Tai Chi (TC), a traditional mind–body exercise combining slow movements, controlled breathing, and mental focus, has gained attention as a potentially safe and accessible rehabilitation strategy for CHF patients. However, its clinical efficacy remains debated, necessitating evidence-based evaluation.

Rationale for Tai Chi in Cardiac Rehabilitation

Tai Chi is considered a low-to-moderate intensity aerobic exercise, making it suitable for older adults and patients with limited physical capacity, such as those with CHF. Its emphasis on balance, relaxation, and gentle movement may reduce sympathetic activation and improve psychosocial well-being. From a research perspective, TC offers a holistic intervention that may complement standard cardiac rehabilitation, particularly for patients unable or unwilling to engage in conventional exercise programs.

Methodological Approach of the Meta-Analysis

The meta-analysis synthesized evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating TC in CHF patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (≤45%). Comprehensive searches of PubMed and EMBASE databases ensured systematic identification of eligible studies. By calculating weighted mean differences (WMDs) and assessing heterogeneity using the I² statistic, the analysis aimed to quantitatively determine the impact of TC on functional capacity, biomarkers, hemodynamic parameters, and QoL outcomes.

Effects of Tai Chi on Quality of Life

One of the most consistent findings of the meta-analysis was the significant improvement in QoL among CHF patients practicing Tai Chi. The observed reduction in QoL scores suggests meaningful psychosocial and functional benefits, potentially mediated through reduced stress, enhanced self-efficacy, and improved emotional well-being. These findings highlight QoL as a sensitive outcome measure for mind–body interventions and underscore TC’s value beyond purely physiological endpoints.

Impact on Exercise Capacity and Clinical Outcomes

Despite favorable effects on QoL, Tai Chi did not demonstrate statistically significant improvements in objective clinical parameters such as N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide levels, blood pressure, peak oxygen uptake, or six-minute walking distance. While trends toward improved exercise capacity were observed, the lack of significance may reflect limited sample sizes, short intervention durations, or variability in TC protocols across studies.

Research Gaps and Future Directions

The current evidence base is constrained by small-scale RCTs and methodological heterogeneity, limiting definitive conclusions regarding Tai Chi’s role in CHF management. Future research should prioritize larger, well-designed trials with standardized TC interventions, longer follow-up periods, and integration of both clinical and patient-reported outcomes. Such studies are essential to clarify whether Tai Chi can influence disease progression, functional capacity, and long-term prognosis in CHF patients.

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#ChronicHeartFailure #TaiChiResearch #CardiacRehabilitation #MetaAnalysis #QualityOfLife #ExerciseTherapy #MindBodyMedicine #HeartFailureManagement #ClinicalResearch #RCTs #NonPharmacologicalTherapy #EvidenceBasedMedicine #CardiovascularHealth #RehabilitationScience #PatientCenteredCare #ExerciseCapacity #HeartFailureStudies #IntegrativeMedicine #HealthOutcomes #FutureResearch

Decoding the Complexity of IgA Immune Responses Respiratory Syncytial Virus #pencis #researchawards

Introduction

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) remains one of the most significant viral threats to infant respiratory health worldwide, causing severe lower respiratory tract infections that can lead to hospitalization and long-term pulmonary complications. Despite decades of research, effective and durable protective strategies for early life remain elusive, largely due to fundamental age-dependent differences in immune function. Infants exhibit distinct mucosal immune responses compared to adults, particularly at the level of antibody production and immune regulation. Understanding how these developmental differences influence susceptibility to RSV is critical for advancing vaccine development and improving clinical outcomes in this vulnerable population.

Age-Dependent Mucosal Immunity in RSV Infection

Mucosal immunity in the respiratory tract undergoes profound developmental changes from infancy to adulthood, shaping host defense against RSV. In infants, immune responses are biased toward tolerance and immune regulation, a feature thought to protect against excessive inflammation during early microbial exposure. However, this bias results in diminished antiviral effector responses, including reduced antibody production at mucosal surfaces. These age-specific immune characteristics contribute to higher viral replication, prolonged infection, and increased disease severity in infants compared to adults during RSV infection.

Role of IgA in Controlling RSV at Respiratory Surfaces

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is the predominant antibody isotype at respiratory mucosal surfaces and serves as a first line of defense against RSV by neutralizing the virus and limiting epithelial infection. In adults, robust RSV-specific IgA responses correlate with reduced viral load and milder disease. In contrast, infants exhibit markedly reduced IgA production following RSV exposure. This deficiency compromises mucosal barrier protection and facilitates viral persistence, highlighting IgA as a critical but underdeveloped component of early-life immunity against RSV.

Impaired Class Switch Recombination in Infant B Cells

The failure of infants to generate strong IgA responses during RSV infection is closely linked to impaired class switch recombination (CSR) in B cells. Neonatal B cells display intrinsic limitations in undergoing CSR due to reduced expression of key activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) and altered signaling through cytokine and costimulatory pathways. These molecular constraints limit the diversification of antibody isotypes, skewing responses toward less effective humoral immunity and reinforcing susceptibility to severe RSV disease in early life.

Regulatory B Cells as Modulators of Antiviral Immunity

Regulatory B cells (Bregs), particularly neonatal Bregs (nBregs), have emerged as critical modulators of immune responses during infancy. These cells exert immunosuppressive effects through cytokine production, such as interleukin-10, dampening antiviral T-cell responses and inhibiting effective B-cell activation. During RSV infection, nBregs can suppress class switch recombination and IgA production, thereby limiting protective mucosal immunity. While this regulatory function may prevent immunopathology, it paradoxically contributes to increased viral burden and disease severity in infants.

Implications for Infant-Specific RSV Vaccine Design

Elucidating the mechanisms underlying impaired IgA responses and Breg-mediated immune suppression has profound implications for RSV vaccine development. Traditional vaccine strategies designed for adults may fail in infants due to their unique immune regulatory environment. Targeted approaches that enhance mucosal IgA production, modulate Breg activity, or promote age-appropriate B-cell maturation may offer more effective protection. A deeper understanding of infant-specific immune pathways is essential for the rational design of next-generation RSV vaccines and immunomodulatory interventions tailored to early life.

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#RSVResearch, #InfantImmunity, #MucosalImmunity, #IgAResponse, #RespiratoryViruses, #NeonatalImmunity, #BCellBiology, #RegulatoryBCells, #RSVVaccines, #PediatricInfections, #AntiviralImmunity, #ImmuneDevelopment, #EarlyLifeImmunity, #ClassSwitchRecombination, #RespiratoryHealth, #ViralPathogenesis, #Immunoregulation, #VaccineDesign, #TranslationalImmunology, #PediatricResearch

Reveals Defense Pathways in Chinese Cabbage Against Black Spot Disease 🌱🧬 #pencis #researchawards

Introduction

Black spot disease, caused by Alternaria brassicicola, represents a major biotic constraint to Chinese cabbage production, leading to significant yield and quality losses. Understanding the molecular and biochemical defence strategies employed by resistant germplasm is essential for developing durable disease management approaches. Recent advances in multi-omics technologies have enabled integrated analyses of transcriptomic and metabolomic responses during early pathogen infection, offering new insights into host–pathogen interactions. In this context, the Chinese cabbage line 904B provides an excellent model to dissect early defence signalling and resistance-associated pathways against black spot disease.

Hormonal Reprogramming During Early Infection

Upon infection with A. brassicicola, Chinese cabbage line 904B exhibits a pronounced shift in phytohormone signalling. Growth-related hormones such as cytokinin and auxin are significantly suppressed, reflecting a strategic reallocation of resources away from development toward defence. In contrast, defence-associated hormones, particularly ethylene and jasmonic acid (JA), are strongly activated. This hormonal reprogramming highlights the central role of JA–ethylene crosstalk in mediating resistance to necrotrophic pathogens and underscores the importance of hormone balance in early immune responses.

Transcriptomic Insights Into Defence Activation

Transcriptomic profiling at 24 hours post-inoculation reveals extensive gene expression reprogramming in 904B. Genes involved in signal transduction, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and stress responses are markedly upregulated, while those associated with cell growth and differentiation are downregulated. Notably, defence-related kinases and transcriptional regulators show rapid induction, suggesting a tightly controlled signalling cascade that enables rapid perception of pathogen invasion and activation of downstream immune responses.

Metabolomic Remodeling and Secondary Metabolites

Metabolomic analysis demonstrates significant alterations in secondary metabolite accumulation following pathogen challenge. Among these, the sterol compound 4,4-dimethyl-5α-cholest-7-en-3β-ol is markedly upregulated in infected tissues, implicating sterol metabolism in plant defence. Differentially accumulated metabolites are primarily enriched in indole alkaloid metabolism and glycerolipid metabolism pathways, indicating their involvement in strengthening cellular barriers, modulating membrane integrity, and enhancing antimicrobial activity during black spot disease resistance.

Functional Role of BraPBL in Disease Resistance

BraPBL, a receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase (RLCK) family member, exhibits progressively increased expression with prolonged A. brassicicola infection. Functional analyses demonstrate that overexpression of BraPBL significantly enhances resistance to black spot disease, whereas gene silencing compromises host defence. Subcellular localization studies confirm that BraPBL resides at the plasma membrane, consistent with its proposed role in early pathogen perception and signal initiation.

BraPBL-Mediated Signalling and Defence Pathways

Overexpression of BraPBL leads to the activation of key defence-associated genes, including the ROS-generating enzyme RBOH and the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase MEKK1. This activation promotes ROS accumulation and signal amplification, while simultaneously stimulating the JA signalling pathway. Collectively, these findings position BraPBL as a crucial positive regulator of black spot disease resistance, linking membrane-associated signalling, hormone-mediated defence, and metabolic reprogramming in Chinese cabbage.

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Hashtags

#BlackSpotDisease, #ChineseCabbage, #AlternariaBrassicicola, #PlantPathology, #PlantImmunity, #Transcriptomics, #Metabolomics, #Phytohormones, #JasmonicAcid, #EthyleneSignaling, #SecondaryMetabolites, #SterolMetabolism, #BraPBL, #RLCK, #ROS, #MAPKSignaling, #DiseaseResistance, #HostPathogenInteraction, #PlantDefenseMechanisms, #CropProtection