Marburg Virus: Is another pandemic on the horizon? Key facts about yet another bat-linked disease

What is Marburg Virus disease?

Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a highly virulent disease that leads to severe illness and often results in death. First identified in 1967 in Germany, MVD is caused by the Marburg virus, which is transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals, primarily fruit bats.

Current situation in Rwanda

The outbreak in Rwanda has claimed six lives, with most victims being healthcare workers. The Minister of Health has called for heightened preventive measures and vigilance among the population.

Symptoms and transmission

Common symptoms of Marburg virus disease include high fever, severe headache, watery diarrhoea, abdominal pain, and vomiting. The virus spreads through human contact via blood, secretions, and other bodily fluids of infected individuals.


Available treatments and supportive care

Currently, there is no specific treatment for Marburg virus disease. Supportive care remains essential for managing symptoms and providing hydration. Early medical attention is critical for those exhibiting symptoms.


Preventive measures and recommendations

To prevent the spread of Marburg virus disease, individuals should practise good hygiene, avoid contact with infected persons, and ensure thorough cooking of animal products. Caregivers must use protective equipment when caring for ill patients.

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases

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What Causes Chronic Cough?

Causes of Cough

People can experience long-term coughing for different reasons. A chronic cough does not always mean you are sick. Health conditions, environmental factors, and lifestyle factors may be responsible.

1. Allergies, Asthma, Irritants

Why am I coughing so much but not sick? Asthma, allergens, and irritants are common triggers of a cough that's not caused by illness. Asthma is a chronic disease that affects the lungs and causes asthma attacks. Triggers like certain foods or airborne irritants result in asthma attacks. These attacks include repeated episodes of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and nighttime or early morning coughing.
You do not need to have asthma to be affected by airborne irritants. Around 40–60 million Americans have allergic rhinitis (hay fever).4 Allergic rhinitis causes coughing and other symptoms like a stuffy nose and sneezing. Common triggers include pollen, dust, and pet dander.

2.Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

Heartburn is the main symptom of GERD, a digestive disorder. Coughing is another common symptom, along with chest pain and wheezing.

GERD affects people of all ages, from infants to older adults. People with asthma are at higher risk of developing the disorder. Asthma attacks can cause the lower esophageal sphincter to relax, which lets stomach contents flow back into the esophagus.

3. Air Pollution

Various pollutants and irritants in the air can cause a persistent cough. Even short-term exposure to fumes can result in cough, phlegm, and lung irritation.8 Fumes can also exacerbate the symptoms of allergies or asthma. Mold spores found in and around homes may similarly cause wheezing and coughing if you inhale them.

4. Smoking

People who smoke often develop a cough. The body's natural response to get rid of chemicals that enter the airways and lungs from tobacco use causes coughing. This chronic cough is often known as a smoker's cough.10 A smoker's cough may begin as a dry cough but can eventually turn into a wet cough, which produces phlegm.
A study published in 2016 looked at the prevalence of chronic cough and possible causes in the general population. The researchers used data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and included 119,280 adults older than 40. They found that 47.7% of people with chronic cough were current smokers

Treatment

Treating chronic cough will depend on the underlying cause. The options available to you will be specific to your individual case.19 Identifying and avoiding allergens or taking allergy medications, for example, can help resolve allergy-related chronic coughing. A healthcare provider may also advise treatments to manage the coughing if it cannot be resolved.

Home Remedies

A few home remedies exist to help treat or manage chronic coughing. Avoiding or limiting exposure to allergens or irritants, including tobacco smoke, can ensure your cough does not get worse.
Coughing can irritate your throat. Soothing your throat is another way to relieve a chronic cough. You can use cough drops, hard candies, or honey to decrease discomfort from a sore throat.
Hydration is another essential way to reduce a chronic cough. Drinking plenty of fluids thins mucus that might make you cough. Using a humidifier to moisten the air in your home can also decrease coughing.

When To See a Healthcare Provider

Consult a healthcare provider if you are concerned about coughing. You'll also want to see a healthcare provider if you have a chronic cough that lasts for more than eight weeks. They'll want to do an exam to help figure out what's causing the prolonged cough.

Seek medical attention in general if you have:

• A fever
• Coughing up blood or thick phlegm or mucus that smells bad
• Difficulty breathing or swallowing
• Stridor, a high-pitched noise when you breathe i
• Violent coughing that starts quickly
• Worsening cough upon lying down

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases

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Pneumonia in children: What you need to know

What causes pneumonia?

Pneumonia is an acute respiratory infection of the lungs. It doesn’t have one single cause – it can develop from either bacteria, viruses or fungi in the air. When a child is infected, their lungs get inflamed, may fill with fluid or pus and it becomes difficult to breathe. Children whose immune systems are immature (i.e. newborns or premature babies) along with those with poor immunities (i.e. due to undernourishment or diseases like HIV) are more vulnerable to pneumonia.

What are pneumonia symptoms?

As pneumonia is an infection of the lungs, the most common symptoms are coughing, trouble breathing and fever. Children with pneumonia usually experience fast breathing, or their lower chest may draw in or retract when they inhale (in a healthy person, the chest expands during inhalation).

What are pneumonia treatments?

The treatment for pneumonia depends on the type of pneumonia. In developing countries, the largest number of pneumonia cases are caused by bacteria and can be treated with low cost antibiotics. Yet many children with pneumonia do not receive the antibiotics they need because they lack access to quality health care. Other causes of pneumonia are viruses or mycobacteria (e.g. those causing tuberculosis) requiring other treatments. Tuberculosis in particular often remains un-diagnosed in children.

Is there a pneumonia vaccine?

Pneumonia caused by bacteria is easily preventable with vaccines. However, 40 per cent of children around the world are not fully protected with the primary vaccine to prevent pneumonia – the Pneumococcal (PCV) vaccine. In addition, other vaccines such as Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis and measles-containing vaccines and Hemophilus Influenza B (Hib) vaccine protects children from pneumonia.

Where are the most children dying from pneumonia?

The countries with the largest number of child pneumonia deaths are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.

Child deaths from pneumonia are concentrated in the world’s poorest countries. Within these countries, it is the most deprived and marginalized children who suffer the most. They often have limited or no access to basic health services and are more likely to suffer from other health threats like malnutrition, infectious diseases and polluted air. They often live in fragile or humanitarian settings, where often risk factors increase and health systems break down.

How big a factor is malnutrition in pneumonia related deaths?

Wasting is the leading risk factor for deaths from pneumonia among children. It’s the most visible and life-threatening form of malnutrition. When a child is too thin and their immune systems are weak, they’re far more vulnerable to diseases like pneumonia. Wasting tends to occur very early in life and disproportionately impacts children under 2 years of age. It’s essential that we invest in nutrition services to prevent children from dying from pneumonia.

What is needed to stop pneumonia?

Swift action and investments are required to ensure that no child dies from pneumonia and other preventable or treatable diseases, this includes: reducing risk factors, protecting children’s immune systems and ensuring all children have access to good-quality health care, free at the point of use, with well trained and equipped health workers.

What UNICEF is calling for

• Strengthening and prioritization of routine immunization and scaling up coverage of PCV, measles and DTP vaccines to above 90% to ensure every child is protected from pneumonia.
• Improving basic oxygen access and use, so no child is left fighting for breath.
• Investing in the prevention and treatment of severe acute malnutrition, to reduce child deaths from pneumonia.
• Investing in health workers and infrastructure to put essential health services within easy reach of families. Health workers much have the right training, medicines and diagnostic tools.
• Continued action to engage and empower communities to support prevention and treatment.

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases

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RSV: When It's More Than Just a Cold

Almost all children get infected with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) at least once before they are 2 years old. For most healthy children, RSV is like a cold. But some children get very sick with RSV.

What is RSV?

RSV is one of the many viruses that cause respiratory illness. It spreads like a cold virus from person to person. It enters the body through the nose or eyes, usually from contact with infected saliva, mucus or nasal discharge.

These infections usually occur in the late fall through early spring months. The timing can vary in some parts of the country.

RSV is the most common cause of hospitalization in children under age 1 year. Two to three out of every 100 infants in the US with RSV infection may require a hospital stay. Those babies may need oxygen to help with breathing or (intravenous) IV fluids if they are not eating or drinking. Most of these children get better and can go home after a few days.

New ways to protect babies from RSV

There are new immunizations to protect babies from severe illness during RSV season. You can choose RSV immunization during pregnancy, or your baby can be immunized after they are born. Most infants will likely only need protection from either the maternal RSV vaccine or infant immunization, but not both.

RSV vaccine during pregnancy

Pregnant people can receive the maternal RSV vaccine (Abrysvo) at 32 through 36 weeks of pregnancy if their baby will be born during RSV season. The vaccine is given from September through January and reduces the risk of RSV hospitalization for babies by 57% in their first six months after birth.

The RSV vaccine for pregnant people is given just once. If you received the RSV vaccine during any pregnancy, you should not get another dose if you are pregnant again. Babies born from later pregnancies should receive the immunization for babies. See below for information about the infant immunization.

RSV immunization for babies

For infants and some toddlers, an RSV immunization called nirsevimab (Beyfortus) can be given as an injection during or just before RSV season. Babies can get it at the hospital when they are born or at their checkup visit. Nirsevimab has been shown to be spproximately 80-90% effective in preventing infants from being hospitalized with RSV.

The shot works a little differently than a traditional vaccine. It provides preventive antibodies that start working to protect babies right away. The protection lasts throughout a typical RSV season.

What about palivizumab?

For some children, there is another product called palivizumab that is given as an injection once a month during RSV season. It is for children under age 24 months with certain conditions that place them at high risk for severe RSV. High risk children should receive palivizumab if nirsevimab is not available.

Children who receive nirsevimab should not get palivizumab. However, if your child did not get all doses of palivizumab, they may be eligible for nirsevimab. Children who received palivizumab in their first season can get nirsevimab in their second season if they are eligible.

RSV symptoms in babies

Typically, RSV causes cold symptoms, which may be followed by bronchiolitis or pneumonia which are infections of the lower airways in the chest or lungs. RSV symptoms are typically at their worst on days 3 through 5 of illness. Symptoms generally last an average of 7-14 days.

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases

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How Intelligent are Microbes?

Although past efforts have been dedicated to studying intelligent processes in humans, other mammals, and birds, the topic the microbial intelligence has recently been currently gaining traction. Analysis of microbial models and comparative genomics studies confirm that microbes have evolved diverse means of memory, learning, and processing information; all of which are classified as ‘intelligent behavior’.

The most studied manifestations of intelligence in the microbial world include decision-making, problem-solving, associative learning, and quorum sensing. A better understanding of microbial intelligence can be utilized to solve human problems.

Decision making:

Microbes are able to monitor their environment, process information, and intelligently make a decision. These decisions can be made through various mechanisms and networks such as gene-expression regulation, signaling pathways, transport, metabolism, etc. There are ongoing studies involved in constructing genome-wide protein interaction networks to gain a better understanding of the molecules and interconnections required for microbes to make decisions.

The most well-studied example of microbes decision-making capabilities is the chemotaxis of E. coli. These microbes decide by monitoring their environment through plasma membrane receptors. If these receptors bind to certain ligands, a signaling pathway involving phosphorylation and methylation is induced within the cells. In this example, it is the level of phosphorylated CheY, a downstream protein of the signaling pathway, that ultimately decides which of two movements the E. coli cells undertake.

In the presence of an attractor ligand-receptor interaction, CheY is phosphorylated and binds to the flagellar motor. This causes the motor to rotate anti-clockwise, thus inducing a straight-swimming motion of E. coli cells. In contrast, in the absence of an attractor ligand-receptor interaction, CheY remains unphosphorylated and cannot bind to the flagellar motor. This causes the motor to rotate clockwise, thus inducing a tumbling motion of E. coli cells.

By utilizing this mechanism, E. coli can process information through their surroundings to decide whether to move towards or away from certain stimuli, ultimately increasing their chances of survival. For instance, this method allows E. coli cells to decide to move towards nutrients and away from toxic compounds.

Problem solving

Using knowledge to solve new problems is an essential feature required to make an intelligent system. It is generally accepted that organisms with greater intelligence can solve more complex problems. Certain microbial systems have displayed problem-solving capabilities that can be utilized for survival. In some cases, these abilities can match or even surpass those displayed by humans.

The benefits of understanding microbial intelligence

Understanding the mechanisms that underly microbial intelligence is an ongoing field of research. Scientists are invested in utilizing this knowledge to modify existing microbial networks or potentially create new ones to use to our advantage.

For example, extensive research is being dedicated to continuing to understand bacterial population dynamics including cell division, quorum sensing, bacterial secretion systems, and metabolite-sensing networks. Such knowledge can be used to design and develop novel antibacterial drug therapies to treat patients, especially since the efficacy of current treatments has declined over time due to antibiotic resistance in microbial populations.

Other interests include designing and improving biodegradation processes of microbes to use in wastewater treatment; as well as manipulating microbial metabolism for chemical production in biomedicine and food industries. Continuing to gain a better understanding of microbial dynamics and intelligence will allow for these ideas to become a reality in the near future.

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases

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Fevers: What to Do and When to Worry

When you have a fever, you generally feel lousy — you might be tired, irritable, flushed, sweaty or achy. But it can be tough to figure out whether you can care for a fever at home or if you need medical attention. It’s even trickier when it’s your child who has a fever, especially a baby or toddler who can’t tell you how they feel.

David Kipp, MD, a pediatrician with Banner Urgent Care, explained more about fevers, what they could mean and what steps you should take if you’re caring for someone who has one.

“Fever is a sign, not a disease,” Dr. Kipp said. A fever tells you that something else is wrong. It’s often a sign of an infection, but other conditions such as autoimmune diseases, cancers and inflammation can also cause fevers. Fevers can affect people differently, depending on their age.

A fever happens when your body temperature goes above 98.6°F (37°C). A higher body temperature makes it harder for viruses and bacteria to survive. So when your body detects a threat, a part of your brain called the hypothalamus raises your body temperature.

Common causes of fevers

Infections are the top culprit when it comes to fevers. “Most infections, especially in children, are caused by viruses, which generally cannot be treated except for making the child comfortable until the virus infection runs its course,” Dr. Kipp said.

But some fevers are caused by conditions that can be treated with antibiotics or antiviral medications, such as:

• Ear infections
• Sinus infections
• COVID-19
• Pneumonia
• Strep throat
• Serious skin infections
• Urinary tract infections
• Influenza
• Meningitis
• Bacterial infections in the blood (sepsis)

If you or your child has symptoms that could be a sign of a treatable infection or an emergency, seek medical care quickly.

Get care right away for a fever along with:

• Ear pain
• Sinus pain
• Deep productive cough
• Sore throat
• Pain or blood with urination
• Chills and body aches during flu season
• Neck stiffness
• Headache
• Trouble breathing
• Seizure
• Persistent vomiting
• Confusion
• Chest pain
• A weakened immune system

If you or your child seem very sick or you’re concerned about a fever for any reason, reach out to a provider for advice. Trust your instincts.

What else is going on?

There are a few other things to look at along with a fever:

• Other symptoms: “Fever evaluation should consider the whole child and other symptoms. A playful, smiling infant or young child with a fever who is eating and drinking fairly normally is much less concerning than a lethargic, fussy child who is not eating or drinking well,” Dr. Kipp said.
• How high the fever is: “In older infants and children, the higher the fever, the more likely the child might have a serious infection that could require antibiotics. A general guideline is a fever over 103 to 104 degrees should be evaluated promptly,” Dr. Kipp said (see below for more specific advice based on age).
• Immunizations: “A fever in an unimmunized infant or child could be a sign of a serious infection such as sepsis or bacterial meningitis,” Dr. Kipp said. Immunization prevents these germs from getting into the bloodstream or brain.

How to treat a fever at home

A fever that doesn’t need medical care can still leave you or your child feeling icky. But not all fevers need to be lowered. Mild to moderate fevers may help the immune system work better.

In babies, you might be able to manage a fever at home if they don’t have other symptoms and they are feeding well and alert. In children and adults, you may be able to manage fevers with mild symptoms like cough, runny nose or mild body aches at home.

Here are some steps you can take to help you or your loved one stay comfortable and hydrated:

• Drink plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration. In babies, that may mean breast milk or formula. Older children and adults may want water, herbal tea, diluted juice, clear broth, cool drinks or popsicles. Electrolyte solutions can help you stay hydrated. Avoid drinks with caffeine or alcohol, since they can dehydrate you.
• Dress lightly, apply cool, damp cloths to the forehead and take lukewarm baths.
• Encourage plenty of rest to help fight off infection.
• Avoid strenuous activities that can raise body temperature.
• If you need to lower the fever with medication, use acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Advil or Motrin) as directed by a health care professional. Use infant, children or adult types of over-the-counter (OTC) medications based on the age and weight of the person with the fever. “Avoid aspirin under age 18 and ibuprofen under age 6 months,” Dr. Kipp said. Aspirin can cause Reye's syndrome in children. Ibuprofen is more likely to cause side effects in young babies.

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Understanding Diphtheria: Symptoms, Treatment, Causes & Types

What is Diphtheria?

Diphtheria is a contagious bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium Diphtheriae. The diphtheria bacterium releases a toxin that causes a buildup of greyish membrane in the throat and nose. This obstructs the airway and can cause difficulty breathing and swallowing. In some cases, this may also cause sores on the skin.
What are the Different Types of Diphtheria?

There are two main types of diphtheria: 

Respiratory diphtheria: This is the most common type of diphtheria, affecting your nose, throat, tonsils, and larynx (voice box)
Cutaneous diphtheria: This type of diphtheria may form rash, sores or blisters on your skin. It usually occurs in people with poor hygiene practices.

How Do You Get Diphtheria?

Diphtheria is spread through respiratory droplets from an infected person when they cough, sneeze, or talk. Therefore, avoid close contact with a diphtheria infected individual or contaminated objects as they can spread infection. Moreover, you are more prone to get diphtheria if you are not vaccinated against it.

What are the Symptoms of Diphtheria?

Here are a few common diphtheria symptoms:

Soar throat
Fever
Swollen gland in the neck
Difficulty breathing or swallowing
Nasal discharge
Weakness and fatigue
Bluish discolouration of skin
Lesions, sores, or blisters anywhere on the skin

If you are infected with diphtheria, you typically start showing signs two to five days after exposure. However, it can take anywhere from one to 10 days for diphtheria symptoms to appear after exposure.

What Causes Diphtheria?

Diphtheria causes can be pointed at a single bacterium, corynebacterium diphtheriae, which produces a toxin that can cause tissue damage and systemic effects.
How is Diphtheria Diagnosed?

Diphtheria diagnosis is done in the following manner:

Your doctor may collect the sample from the back of your throat using a swab. This throat swab is then sent to lab test to detect the presence of C. diphtheriae bacteria. Culture of the bacteria from clinical specimens: The sample from throat swab is grown in the lab to see if diphtheria causing bacteria are present.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test: This test looks for genetic material specific to the bacteria that causes diphtheria.

How is Diphtheria Treated?

Your doctor may treat you with a combination of antitoxin therapy, antibiotics, and supportive care as diphtheria treatment. For instance: Antitoxin is administered to neutralise the toxin produced by the bacteria causing diphtheria, while antibiotics are given to eradicate the bacteria from the body.
Diphtheria supportive care includes measures to manage symptoms and complications, such as maintaining an open airway, providing intravenous fluids, and monitoring for any signs of respiratory distress or cardiac complications.
In severe cases of diphtheria, hospitalisation and specialised medical care may be necessary.

What are the Complications Associated with Diphtheria?

The complications of diphtheria can be severe, but consulting your doctor at the earliest and with proper diphtheria treatment can be cured. The complications include: Airway obstruction: The thick membrane formed in your throat during respiratory diphtheria can block your airway, leading to difficulty breathing and, in severe cases of diphtheria, even suffocation.
Myocarditis: Diphtheria toxin can damage your heart muscle, leading to myocarditis and inflammation of the heart muscle. This can result in abnormal heart rhythms, heart failure, and even sudden cardiac death.
Neurological Complications: In rare cases, diphtheria toxin can affect your nerves, leading to neurological complications such as paralysis or nerve damage.
Systemic Infection: Diphtheria bacteria can spread through your bloodstream, leading to systemic infection (septicemia), which can result in organ failure and septic shock.
Death: Without prompt treatment, severe cases of diphtheria can be fatal, particularly in young children or individuals with weak immune systems.

However, immediate diphtheria treatment after recognising the signs and symptoms can help you come across fewer complications associated with both types of diphtheria and recover completely.

How is Diphtheria Prevented?

Diphtheria prevention primarily involves vaccination and practising good hygiene: Vaccination: The most effective way to prevent diphtheria is through vaccination. Make sure you and your family receive the diphtheria vaccine as part of the DTaP vaccine (for children) or Tdap vaccine (for adolescents and adults). These vaccines also protect against tetanus and pertussis. Remember to get diphtheria vaccine booster doses throughout your life to maintain immunity.

As side effects of diphtheria vaccination, you may experience fever, pain or redness at the site of injection and rarely allergic reaction to the vaccine itself.Hygiene Practices: Practice good hygiene habits, such as washing your hands frequently with soap and water, covering your mouth and nose when you cough or sneeze, and avoiding close contact with individuals who have respiratory infections. These measures can help reduce the spread of diphtheria.
Ensuring Adequate Immunisation Coverage: It is essential to ensure that your community has adequate immunisation coverage through diphtheria vaccination programs. By participating in these programs and encouraging others to do the same, you can help prevent diphtheria outbreaks and reduce the overall burden of diphtheria.


Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases

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About Vector-Borne Diseases

Overview

Mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas that spread germs (pathogens) are called vectors. A person who gets bitten by a vector and gets sick could have a vector-borne disease (VBD).

Some VBDs, like plague, have been around for thousands of years. Others, like Heartland and Bourbon virus diseases, have been discovered recently. Some VBDs can become serious, life-threatening illnesses.

Causes and spread

Several factors are driving the emergence and increased spread of VBDs, putting more people at greater risk.

• Changing land use patterns, like reforestation, can lead to increased deer populations and suburban growth, exposing more people to more infected tick bites each year.
• Global travel and trade play a role in introducing invasive vectors and pathogens throughout the Americas.

1. Travelers have inadvertently brought chikungunya and Zika viruses into the United States.
2. Almost every year, travelers have been associated with local spread of dengue in southern states.

A changing climate influences the geographic distribution and seasonality of VBDs. This includes:

• Changing weather patterns and increased frequency of severe and unpredictable weather, such as heat waves and droughts.
• Longer and warmer summers and shorter and milder winters lengthen vector seasons in the United States.
• Temperature and precipitation affect disease transmission by impacting the replication, interaction, and survival of disease vectors.

These factors, along with societal factors like housing conditions, occupational exposures, and access to health care, can contribute to worsening the already disproportionate impacts of VBDs in some communities.

Prevention

Everyone in the United States is at risk of getting sick from germs spread by infected ticks, mosquitoes, fleas, and other vectors.

Everyone can take steps to prevent bites

• Prevent mosquito bites
• Prevent tick bites
• Prevent mosquito and tick bites

Vaccines are available for travelers

Few vaccines are available for vector-borne diseases. However, travelers can protect themselves. People traveling to areas with risk for the following viruses can discuss vaccination with their healthcare provider.

• Chikungunya
• Japanese encephalitis
• Tick-borne encephalitis
• Yellow fever

Testing and diagnosis

For the public
If you think you or a family member may be sick with a VBD, talk with your healthcare provider. Healthcare providers diagnose vector-borne infections based on:

• Signs and symptoms
• History of possible exposure to mosquitoes, ticks, or fleas that can spread germs
• Laboratory testing

Your healthcare provider can order tests to look for germs or other infections that can cause symptoms similar to VBDs.

For professionals

CDC offers diagnostic testing services to public health departments when commercial tests are not available or when additional testing may be required.

• DVBD laboratories provide testing free of charge to approved agencies. DVBD laboratories can perform testing on arboviral, bacterial, and rickettsial specimens.

How animals are affected

Pets can get sick from germs spread by mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. VBDs that can affect pets include dog heartworm, Lyme disease, and plague. Pets can also bring ticks into your home.

Vaccines are not available for most tickborne diseases that pets can get. Protect your pets by learning how to prevent ticks on pets.

Livestock and wildlife can also be affected, for example:

• Birds are susceptible to West Nile virus.
• Goats, sheep, and cattle can become infected with Q fever.
• Horses can get sick with eastern equine encephalitis and West Nile.
• The invasive Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis) has been found on pets, livestock, wildlife, and people.

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases.

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Deadly Rat Disease Spreads to Humans, Kills 4 In US

Hantavirus

A health alert has been issued in the state of Arizona, in the United States, after a rodent-borne hantavirus killed four people. The virus spreads to humans through droplets from the urine, saliva, or faeces of the rats.

From January to July, the Arizona Department of Health Services documented seven instances of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome, a serious and occasionally lethal respiratory disease.

Two cases related to this deadly virus have also been found in California. The virus, primarily carried by deer mice in the Grand Canyon State, causes symptoms such as fever, headache, and muscle pain, which can rapidly progress to difficulty breathing. While hantavirus is not spread from person to person, it can occur in various regions and is not limited to a specific area.

Symptoms:

Hantavirus symptoms start with fatigue, fever, muscle aches, headaches, chills, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Late symptoms include coughing and shortness of breath, with a 38% mortality rate for hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) symptoms appear 1-8 weeks post-exposure, causing headaches, pain, fever, chills, nausea, and blurred vision. Severe cases may lead to low blood pressure, shock, vascular leakage, and kidney failure. Recovery can take weeks or months.

Treatment:

The CDC says there is no specific treatment, cure, or vaccine for hantavirus infection. However, if the infected are recognised early on and are provided medical care in an intensive care unit, they may do better. In intensive care, patients are intubated and given oxygen therapy to help them through the period of severe respiratory distress.

Prevention:

According to the Centres for Disease Control, rodent control is the primary necessity to prevent hantavirus infections. Contact with rodent urine, droppings, saliva, and nesting materials should be avoided when cleaning rodent-infested areas.

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases.

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How Lyme Disease Spreads

Lyme Disease

Key points

• Lyme disease bacteria causing human infection in the United States are spread to people by blacklegged (Ixodes) ticks.
• In general, infected ticks must be attached for more than 24 hours to transmit infection; prompt tick removal can prevent transmission.
• Infected ticks are found most commonly in forested areas in the northeastern, north-central, and mid-Atlantic states, and in smaller areas within Pacific Coast states.

How it spreads

The bacteria that cause Lyme disease in the United States, Borrelia burgdorferi and, rarely, B. mayonii, are spread to people through the bites of infected ticks. The blacklegged tick (or deer tick, lxodes scapularis) transmits infection in the northeastern, mid-Atlantic, and north-central United States. The western blacklegged tick (lxodes pacificus) transmits infection in areas along the Pacific Coast. Lyme disease can be prevented by avoiding tick bites and promptly removing ticks.

The percentage of ticks that are infected ranges from none to over 50%, depending on the area and life stage. Blacklegged ticks found in most areas of the southeastern United States are almost never infected.

Blacklegged ticks have a 2-to-3-year life cycle. During this time, they go through four life stages: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. After the egg hatches, the larva and nymph each must take a blood meal to develop to the next life stage, and the female needs blood to produce eggs.

• Larval and nymphal ticks can become infected with Lyme disease bacteria when feeding on an infected wildlife host, usually a rodent. The bacteria are passed along to the next life stage. Nymphs or adult females can then spread the bacteria during their next blood meal.
• Female ticks infected with Lyme disease bacteria do not pass the infection to their offspring.
• Deer are a source of blood for ticks and important to tick survival and movement to new areas. However, deer are not infected with Lyme disease bacteria and do not infect ticks.

About other modes of transmission

• There is no credible scientific evidence that Lyme disease is spread through touching, kissing, or sexual contact. Published studies in animals do not support sexual transmission (Moody 1991; Woodrum 1999), and the biology of the Lyme disease spirochete is not compatible this route of exposure (Porcella 2001).
• Untreated Lyme disease during pregnancy can lead to infection of the placenta; spread from mother to fetus is possible but extremely rare. Fortunately, with appropriate antibiotic treatment, there is no increased risk of adverse birth outcomes. There are no published studies assessing developmental outcomes of children whose mothers acquired Lyme disease during pregnancy.
• There are no reports of Lyme disease being spread to infants through breast milk. If you are diagnosed with Lyme disease and are also breastfeeding, make sure that your doctor knows this so that he or she can prescribe an antibiotic that’s safe for use when breastfeeding.
• Although no cases of Lyme disease have been linked to blood transfusion, scientists have found that the Lyme disease bacteria can live in blood that is stored for donation. Individuals being treated for Lyme disease with an antibiotic should not donate blood. Individuals who have completed antibiotic treatment for Lyme disease may be considered as potential blood donors. Information on the current criteria for blood donation is available on the Red Cross website.
• Although dogs and cats can get Lyme disease, there is no evidence that they spread the infection directly to their owners. However, pets can bring infected ticks into your home or yard. Consider protecting your pet through the use of tick and tickborne disease prevention products for animals.
• You will not get Lyme disease from eating game meat, but in keeping with general food safety principles, always cook meat thoroughly. Note that hunting and dressing game animals may bring you into close contact with infected ticks.
• There is no credible evidence that Lyme disease bacteria can be transmitted through air, food, water, or from the bites of mosquitoes, flies, fleas, or lice.
• Lone star ticks (Amblyomma americanum), the American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis), the Rocky Mountain wood tick (D. andersoni), and the brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) are not able to transmit Lyme disease bacteria, however, they can transmit bacteria, parasites, and viruses that cause other tickborne diseases.

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases.

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New insights reveal how house dust mites trigger allergic asthma by activating immune system

New research from the University of Pittsburgh uncovers how inhaled house dust mites, a common trigger of allergic asthma, activate the immune system and drive this disease in mice.

The findings, published recently in Nature Immunology, offer important insights into how seemingly harmless substances such as dust mites, pet dander and pollen can overcome the immune system to trigger allergic reactions and could eventually pave the way for identifying new therapeutics to treat and manage allergic asthma.

"We often think of the immune system as an army that fights the bad guys," said senior author Amanda C. Poholek, Ph.D., director of the Health Sciences Sequencing Core and assistant professor in the Department of Immunology at Pitt's School of Medicine.

"And while that's true, most of the time your immune system is not encountering pathogens but dealing with dust and pollen that you breathe in, plants and animals that you eat, and things that you touch in the environment. A big question that motivates my research is: How does our immune system know to respond to pathogens and not to self and the environment?"

When the immune system does this job correctly, it's known as immune tolerance. But when tolerance breaks down, typically harmless environmental allergens can activate T Helper 2 (TH2) cells, which are a type of immune cell that drives inflammation in allergic asthma and other allergic diseases.

Allergic asthma is the most common form of asthma, characterized by symptoms such as coughing, chest tightness, shortness of breath and wheezing. This debilitating condition is on the rise worldwide and places a substantial burden on the health care system, according to Poholek.

To learn more about how allergens activate TH2 cells and cause allergic asthma, Poholek and her team used a mouse model of the disease triggered by inhalation of house dust mites. This model is a more accurate representation of how humans encounter allergens compared to studies that used under-the-skin or systemic injections of allergen.

Using new tools that allowed them to track TH2 cells and see exactly when they get activated and where they went, the researchers found that in response to inhaled house dust mite, a specific molecular pathway involving a protein called BLIMP1 was needed to generate TH2 cells in the lymph node. These cells then move to the lung and drive disease. In contrast, when house dust mite is injected, that molecular pathway is not needed.

They also found that two signaling molecules, or cytokines, called IL2 and IL10 were required for expression of BLIMP1.

"IL10 is normally thought of as an anti-inflammatory cytokine, which dampens immune responses, so we were really surprised to find that it was actually promoting inflammation," said Poholek. "This finding opens that door to therapeutic options targeting IL10, which hadn't previously been considered, particularly for newly diagnosed patients."

According to Poholek, most patients with allergic asthma receive steroids, which treat the symptoms but not the root of the disease. There is a huge need for new treatments that allow early intervention before allergic asthma causes long-term damage to the airways.

When the researchers mapped the location of TH2 activation in the lymph node, they were also surprised to find hotspots of IL2 activity.

"IL2 is a very prominent cytokine, so we expected that it would be dispersed throughout the lymph node," said Poholek. "Instead, we discovered that IL2 was localized to certain regions. Now, we have a lot more work to figure out how these regions form and whether disrupting these regions could disrupt the formation of TH2 cells, halting allergic asthma."

Website: International Conference on Infectious Diseases.

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